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What more is left to say about this free Monty Python and the Holy Grail slot machine – we’ve said a lot already! We’ve covered that there’s medium variance, that there’s some naughty features to trigger, and that the betting fee can be low or high depending on how you punt, if you punt at all. Check out our new Monty Python & the Holy Grail Slot Machine! Watch as we win Free Games with our 3 Killer Bunnies! Monty Python’s Spamalot proved to be an immensely popular online slots machine for Playtech when it was released several years ago.This progressive jackpot is now joined by a new Monty Python slot machine game and one which is based on the popular Holy Grail film.
The goal of this series is to describe internals and general concepts behind the class object in Python 3.6. In this part, I will explain how Python stores and lookups attributes. I assume that you already have a basic understanding of object-oriented concepts in Python.
Let’s start with a simple class:
Monty Python’s Spamalot Holy Grail Jackpot is a 5-reel, 20-line video slot that was released back in 2012 by Playtech. The game’s theme is built around the movie, Monty Python and the Holy Grail. The characters in the game are straight out of the movie, along with many symbols that made it popular among comedy fans. The Monty Python’s Spamalot slot machine is based on the eponymous musical from the British comedy band. It is developed by Playtech and has 4 reels and 20 lines. Each spin can bring the payouts with the coefficients of up to 5,000. The slot has 4 bonus games.
使用slots 但是，如果我们想要限制class的属性怎么办？比如，只允许对Student实例添加name和age属性。 为了达到限制的目的，Python允许在定义class的时候，定义一个特殊的slots变量，来限制该class能添加的属性： class Student(object). On the class-level, each slot has as a descriptor that knows its unique position in the instance list. There is a good explanation of how it works by Raymond Hettinger. Although it was written 10 years ago, the concept stays the same. Bonus: function attributes. Python’s dictionary is so fundamental to Python, that many other objects using it too.
Here the Vehicle is a class, and the car is an instance of the class.
The dot notation (e.g. car.kind) is called an attribute reference, which usually points either to a variable or a method (function).Instance and class variables
The model_name is called an instance variable, which value belongs to an instance. On the other hand, the kind is a class variable, which owner is a class.
It is important to understand the difference between them. Changing class variables affect all instances.
What happens when you change a class variable from the instance?
As you can see, the value of the kind variable changes only for one instance. How is it possible?
Instead of changing a class variable Python creates a new instance variable with the same name. Hence, the instance variables have precedence over class variables when searching for an attribute value.Python Data Class SlotsMutable class variables
You need to be very careful when working with mutable class variables (e.g., list, set, dictionary). Unlike immutable types, you can change them from an instance.
The rule of thumb here is to avoid class variables unless you have a reason to use them.How Python stores instance attributes
In Python, all instance variables are stored as a regular dictionary. When working with attributes, you just changing a dictionary.
We can access instance dictionary by calling __dict__ dunder (magic) method:Monty Python Slot Machine App
By knowing this detail, we can save and later restore the state of an arbitrary class:How Python stores class attributes
As I said earlier, class attributes are owned by a class itself (i.e., by its definition). As it turns out, classes are using a dictionary too.
Class dictionary can also be accessed from an instance, using __class__ dunder method (i.e., car.__class__.__dict__).
Dictionaries of classes are protected by mappingproxy. The proxy checks that all attribute names are strings, which helps to speed-up attribute lookups. As a downside, it makes dictionary read-only.
Because all methods belong to a class, they are also stored in this dictionary.Functions and methods
As you may know, a method is a function that belongs to a specific class. In Python 2, there were two kinds of methods: unbound and bound. Python 3 has only latter.
Bound methods are associated with data of the instance they bound to:
We can access an instance from a bound method:
Class dictionary stores functions, which become methods when they are accessed by attribute syntax (dot notation). With the help of descriptor protocol, every function has a __get__ method, which bounds function to an object.
Manual function bounding:
As a result, bound method omits first argument (i.e. self) of a function.
There is a well-written explanation of how it is work in Python’s documentation: Functions and Methods and Method Objects.Inheritance and attribute lookup order
Now you know that all variables and methods are stored in two dictionaries. It is time to understand how Python performs attribute lookup in case of inheritance.Python Slots Class
Since every Python class implicitly inherits from object, there is always one level of inheritance.Python 3 Class Slots
The mro (Method Resolution Order) is a special method, which returns linearized order of classes.
To fully understand lookup order you need be familiar with Descriptor Protocol. But basically, the are two types of descriptors:
If an object defines both __get__() and __set__(), it is considered a data descriptor. Descriptors that only define __get__() are called non-data descriptors (they are typically used for methods but other uses are possible).
Thus, because functions only implement __get__, they are called non-data descriptors.
Python uses the following order:
*Data descriptors from class dictionary and its parents
*Instance dictionary
*Non-data descriptors from class dictionary and its parents
Keep in mind, that no matter how many levels of inheritance you have there is always one instance dictionary which stores all instance variables.
Pseudo-code of attribute lookup:Monty Python Slot Game__slots__Monty Python Free
When dealing with thousands of instances, memory consumption can be a problem. Because of the underlying implementation of a hash table, creating a dictionary for each instance takes a lot of memory. Hopefully, Python provides a way to disable per-instance dictionary by defining __slots__ attribute.
Here is how slots are usully defined:
When you define slots, instead of creating a dictionary for each instance, attribute values are stored in a list. In turn, attributes names are moved to a class dictionary.
On the class-level, each slot has as a descriptor that knows its unique position in the instance list. There is a good explanation of how it works by Raymond Hettinger. Although it was written 10 years ago, the concept stays the same.Bonus: function attributes
Python’s dictionary is so fundamental to Python, that many other objects using it too. Since Python 2.1, functions can have arbitrary attributes, that is, you can use a function as key-value storage.
Internally, it’s just a dictionary that handles failed attribute lookups (i.e., nondefault attributes). You can access or even replace such dictionary using already familiar __dict__ attribute. The PEP 232 has an extensive description of this feature.
For example, you can track the number of times a function was called:
The explanation of attributes got a lot longer than I expected and I will split the article about internals into a series of posts. If you don’t want to miss the follow-up on this topic, you can subscribe to my RSS.Python Slot Machine CodeMonty Python online, free
Want a monthly digest of these blog posts?
*Andrew Franklin 2 years, 10 months ago (from disqus) #
double -> square
;)
*行者酱油君 2 years, 10 months ago (from disqus) #
When i saw the title，i expected it’s a post about python implement in C, But it seems it just in python level...
*Artem 2 years, 10 months ago (from disqus) #
Very few people want to read C code, I’m rewriting all C code to Python pseudo-code. The get_attribute function originally written in C.
*Aidas Bendoraitis 2 years, 10 months ago (from disqus) #
Very detailed and comprehensive article. Thanks!
I would just like to have information about __slots__ included.
And I would rename the from_dict(dict) to from_dict(dictionary), because dict is a reserved keyword for the dictionary type.
*Artem 2 years, 10 months ago (from disqus) #
Next article starts with slots. I will finish it soon.
Good catch about dict!
upd: Actually, I changed my mind and added description about slots to this article.
*Tony Su 12 months ago #
I happened to read this article and it really solved many puzzles in my mind of how Python does this and that under the table and why.
Really appreciated it!!!Monty Python Slot Machine AppMonty Python Slots Online
*Sam B 8 months, 2 weeks ago #
Great article and one of the better articles that describes classes and init I am new to python and one thing I am still unclear about is why should I use classes when I can use a dictionary? They both can store large datasets. And how often are classes used versus dictionaries? Of everything that I have read (keep in mind, at the beginner) level, dictionaries seem to be preferred.
*Artem 8 months, 2 weeks ago #
I always prefer dictionaries. I don’t need classes to just store some data, but you can use them to add extra input validation for each field.
Register here: http://gg.gg/p2bsf
https://diarynote-jp.indered.space
*Monty Python Slot Game
*Monty Python Free
*Monty Python online, free
*Monty Python Slot Machine App
*Monty Python Slots Online
What more is left to say about this free Monty Python and the Holy Grail slot machine – we’ve said a lot already! We’ve covered that there’s medium variance, that there’s some naughty features to trigger, and that the betting fee can be low or high depending on how you punt, if you punt at all. Check out our new Monty Python & the Holy Grail Slot Machine! Watch as we win Free Games with our 3 Killer Bunnies! Monty Python’s Spamalot proved to be an immensely popular online slots machine for Playtech when it was released several years ago.This progressive jackpot is now joined by a new Monty Python slot machine game and one which is based on the popular Holy Grail film.
The goal of this series is to describe internals and general concepts behind the class object in Python 3.6. In this part, I will explain how Python stores and lookups attributes. I assume that you already have a basic understanding of object-oriented concepts in Python.
Let’s start with a simple class:
Monty Python’s Spamalot Holy Grail Jackpot is a 5-reel, 20-line video slot that was released back in 2012 by Playtech. The game’s theme is built around the movie, Monty Python and the Holy Grail. The characters in the game are straight out of the movie, along with many symbols that made it popular among comedy fans. The Monty Python’s Spamalot slot machine is based on the eponymous musical from the British comedy band. It is developed by Playtech and has 4 reels and 20 lines. Each spin can bring the payouts with the coefficients of up to 5,000. The slot has 4 bonus games.
使用slots 但是，如果我们想要限制class的属性怎么办？比如，只允许对Student实例添加name和age属性。 为了达到限制的目的，Python允许在定义class的时候，定义一个特殊的slots变量，来限制该class能添加的属性： class Student(object). On the class-level, each slot has as a descriptor that knows its unique position in the instance list. There is a good explanation of how it works by Raymond Hettinger. Although it was written 10 years ago, the concept stays the same. Bonus: function attributes. Python’s dictionary is so fundamental to Python, that many other objects using it too.
Here the Vehicle is a class, and the car is an instance of the class.
The dot notation (e.g. car.kind) is called an attribute reference, which usually points either to a variable or a method (function).Instance and class variables
The model_name is called an instance variable, which value belongs to an instance. On the other hand, the kind is a class variable, which owner is a class.
It is important to understand the difference between them. Changing class variables affect all instances.
What happens when you change a class variable from the instance?
As you can see, the value of the kind variable changes only for one instance. How is it possible?
Instead of changing a class variable Python creates a new instance variable with the same name. Hence, the instance variables have precedence over class variables when searching for an attribute value.Python Data Class SlotsMutable class variables
You need to be very careful when working with mutable class variables (e.g., list, set, dictionary). Unlike immutable types, you can change them from an instance.
The rule of thumb here is to avoid class variables unless you have a reason to use them.How Python stores instance attributes
In Python, all instance variables are stored as a regular dictionary. When working with attributes, you just changing a dictionary.
We can access instance dictionary by calling __dict__ dunder (magic) method:Monty Python Slot Machine App
By knowing this detail, we can save and later restore the state of an arbitrary class:How Python stores class attributes
As I said earlier, class attributes are owned by a class itself (i.e., by its definition). As it turns out, classes are using a dictionary too.
Class dictionary can also be accessed from an instance, using __class__ dunder method (i.e., car.__class__.__dict__).
Dictionaries of classes are protected by mappingproxy. The proxy checks that all attribute names are strings, which helps to speed-up attribute lookups. As a downside, it makes dictionary read-only.
Because all methods belong to a class, they are also stored in this dictionary.Functions and methods
As you may know, a method is a function that belongs to a specific class. In Python 2, there were two kinds of methods: unbound and bound. Python 3 has only latter.
Bound methods are associated with data of the instance they bound to:
We can access an instance from a bound method:
Class dictionary stores functions, which become methods when they are accessed by attribute syntax (dot notation). With the help of descriptor protocol, every function has a __get__ method, which bounds function to an object.
Manual function bounding:
As a result, bound method omits first argument (i.e. self) of a function.
There is a well-written explanation of how it is work in Python’s documentation: Functions and Methods and Method Objects.Inheritance and attribute lookup order
Now you know that all variables and methods are stored in two dictionaries. It is time to understand how Python performs attribute lookup in case of inheritance.Python Slots Class
Since every Python class implicitly inherits from object, there is always one level of inheritance.Python 3 Class Slots
The mro (Method Resolution Order) is a special method, which returns linearized order of classes.
To fully understand lookup order you need be familiar with Descriptor Protocol. But basically, the are two types of descriptors:
If an object defines both __get__() and __set__(), it is considered a data descriptor. Descriptors that only define __get__() are called non-data descriptors (they are typically used for methods but other uses are possible).
Thus, because functions only implement __get__, they are called non-data descriptors.
Python uses the following order:
*Data descriptors from class dictionary and its parents
*Instance dictionary
*Non-data descriptors from class dictionary and its parents
Keep in mind, that no matter how many levels of inheritance you have there is always one instance dictionary which stores all instance variables.
Pseudo-code of attribute lookup:Monty Python Slot Game__slots__Monty Python Free
When dealing with thousands of instances, memory consumption can be a problem. Because of the underlying implementation of a hash table, creating a dictionary for each instance takes a lot of memory. Hopefully, Python provides a way to disable per-instance dictionary by defining __slots__ attribute.
Here is how slots are usully defined:
When you define slots, instead of creating a dictionary for each instance, attribute values are stored in a list. In turn, attributes names are moved to a class dictionary.
On the class-level, each slot has as a descriptor that knows its unique position in the instance list. There is a good explanation of how it works by Raymond Hettinger. Although it was written 10 years ago, the concept stays the same.Bonus: function attributes
Python’s dictionary is so fundamental to Python, that many other objects using it too. Since Python 2.1, functions can have arbitrary attributes, that is, you can use a function as key-value storage.
Internally, it’s just a dictionary that handles failed attribute lookups (i.e., nondefault attributes). You can access or even replace such dictionary using already familiar __dict__ attribute. The PEP 232 has an extensive description of this feature.
For example, you can track the number of times a function was called:
The explanation of attributes got a lot longer than I expected and I will split the article about internals into a series of posts. If you don’t want to miss the follow-up on this topic, you can subscribe to my RSS.Python Slot Machine CodeMonty Python online, free
Want a monthly digest of these blog posts?
*Andrew Franklin 2 years, 10 months ago (from disqus) #
double -> square
;)
*行者酱油君 2 years, 10 months ago (from disqus) #
When i saw the title，i expected it’s a post about python implement in C, But it seems it just in python level...
*Artem 2 years, 10 months ago (from disqus) #
Very few people want to read C code, I’m rewriting all C code to Python pseudo-code. The get_attribute function originally written in C.
*Aidas Bendoraitis 2 years, 10 months ago (from disqus) #
Very detailed and comprehensive article. Thanks!
I would just like to have information about __slots__ included.
And I would rename the from_dict(dict) to from_dict(dictionary), because dict is a reserved keyword for the dictionary type.
*Artem 2 years, 10 months ago (from disqus) #
Next article starts with slots. I will finish it soon.
Good catch about dict!
upd: Actually, I changed my mind and added description about slots to this article.
*Tony Su 12 months ago #
I happened to read this article and it really solved many puzzles in my mind of how Python does this and that under the table and why.
Really appreciated it!!!Monty Python Slot Machine AppMonty Python Slots Online
*Sam B 8 months, 2 weeks ago #
Great article and one of the better articles that describes classes and init I am new to python and one thing I am still unclear about is why should I use classes when I can use a dictionary? They both can store large datasets. And how often are classes used versus dictionaries? Of everything that I have read (keep in mind, at the beginner) level, dictionaries seem to be preferred.
*Artem 8 months, 2 weeks ago #
I always prefer dictionaries. I don’t need classes to just store some data, but you can use them to add extra input validation for each field.
Register here: http://gg.gg/p2bsf
https://diarynote-jp.indered.space
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